Management and leadership styles

Management and leadership styles Introduction Nike has been finding it difficult to find a replacement for Philip Knight, the founder and long time CEO of the organization. The purpose of this report is to explore possible management and leadership styles in relation to William Perezs role as the new CEO of Nike. This report identifies the processes related to change management and guides Perez through organizational transformation processes in order for him to be able to fulfil his role as CEO of Nike. This report stresses the importance of organizational development and transformation. Issues addressed in this report include the culture of the organization, different leadership styles, the structure of the organization, the processes of organizational development and future recommendations. Organizational Transformations primary goal is to help an organisation become more healthy and effective, especially during change. The key custodians of organisation health are not the internal or external HR or OD specialist; they are the organisations leaders and managers. Holbeche, L (08-09). Organizational Development Organizational development is a planned approach to organizational change designed to enable an organization to respond and adapt to changing market conditions and to set a new agenda. Organizational development is frequently linked to organization structure, which can act either as an enabling or restrictive mechanism for change. For organizational development to succeed, any policies or strategies introduced must fit with the corporate culture. In practice, Organizational Development can take on many forms, and typical OD activities can include some of the following: Team-building Organizational assessments Career development Training e-Learning Coaching Innovation Leadership development Talent management Change management Organizational Culture Culture is comprised of the assumptions, values, norms of organization members and their behaviours. Members of an organization soon come to sense the particular culture of an organization. Edgar H. Schein stresses that, When one brings culture to the level of the organization and even down to groups within the organization, one can see clearly how culture is created, embedded, evolved, and ultimately manipulated, at the same time, how culture constrains, stabilizes, and provides structure and meaning to the group members. These dynamic processes of culture creation and management are the essence of leadership and make one realize that leadership and culture are two sides of the same coin. Organizational change has a low success rate and it is critically important to get it right, this is support by Cameron who states that, The failure rate of most planned organizational change initiatives is dramatic. It is well known, for example, that as many as three-quarters of reengineering, total quality management, strategic planning and downsizing efforts have failed entirely or have created problems serious enough that the survival of the organization was threatened. According to Edgard Schein, Organizational learning, development and planned change cannot be understood without considering culture as the primary source of resistance to change. Culture can be broken down in to three levels, artifacts, espoused values and basic assumptions and values. Artifacts are the surface, the aspects which can be easily identified but hard to understand. Artifacts include the manners of address, the type of language used, the dress code. It is vital not to judge solely by the Artifacts, one may see Google staff as laid back, enjoying their time at work, having fun and jump to the conclusion that they are inefficient, this being far from the truth. Artifacts also include buildings, furnishings, settings, PR, rituals, Mission, stated values and technology. Beneath artifacts are the Espoused Values, these are the conscious strategies, goals and philosophies and ideology of the organization. The essence of culture is represented by the basic underlying assumptions and values which are difficult to discern because they are largely at an unconscious level. This is also known as the hidden beliefs and assumptions or shared tacit assumptions. Nike has had an evolutionary culture as opposed to a revolutionary culture. It has developed over many years without great intervention or change. Most of the key employees have been with Nike for many years and outsides sense they have their way of doing things. Nike is based on authenticity. Perez must ensure Nike is prepared for organizational change and that this is correctly implemented. As Drucker argues, a good organization structure might not always bring about a good performance, but a bad organization structure makes a good performance impossible no matter how good the workforce is. Perez must understand Nikes core values and maintain them, things like the association of Nike with key sportsmen from around the world and targeting the athletics segment of the clothing industry. Leadership Styles Leadership plays an important role in any organizations development. The personality of the leader and his style of leadership can determine the extent to which the organization will develop. Perez needs to be visionary and have the ability to influence others in order to bring about the required change to Nike. The leader can either reduce resistance to change, or increase the pressures for change, or be a pressure for change. Knight would have helped shape the organizational culture; he has his own effect on Nikes culture based on experiences and personality. In order for employees to be more efficient Perez must provide staff with a spirit of involvement, motivate them through co-operation and be willing to learn from the organization. Analysing different styles of leadership will help improve understanding and recommend which style Perez must adopt. Different leadership styles include: Authoritarian, Participative, Laissez fair also known as Delegative or Genuine. Authoritarian This style is where leaders tell their employees what to do and how to do it without consulting or negotiating with employees. This is often found within the army on the battlefield or by a chef in a kitchen. It is not to be confused with bossing people around, the leaders that adopt this style often need to and it can be the best style in particular situations. If the leader has time and wants to increase moral, motivate the employees and gain more commitment then they should use the participative style. Participative The participative leadership style, also known as democratic, involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process. Despite the fact that the leader consults with employees or managers to determine what to do and how to do it the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Leaders that adopt this style gain the respect of their employees. Laissez-fair Laissez fair or the management style of delegation style is often seen as giving a free reign to employees. The leader allows the employees to make decisions. However, the leader is still responsible for the decisions made. Employees are able to analyse the situation they are confronted with and decide what needs to be done and how to accomplish it. The leader cannot do everything therefore delegates tasks and prioritization responsibilities. This style is frequently used where the leader knows and trusts his managers. A good leader uses all three styles, dependent upon the situations requirements. For example Perez could adopt the authoritarian style of leadership with new employees, in order to form them to fit their job role and develop/settle in more rapidly. He may use the participative style with a team of workers, though he knows the problem he may not have all the information, the employees have faced this situation before and can be left to handle it. Perez can adopt the delegative approach when confronted with a situation where the employees know more than him. For example with a team of workers that have a highly specialized tasks, such as those in the RD department. They know their job and are best left to do it, provided they have proved their efficiency together and have previously made correct decisions, acting responsibly. The leadership style adopted by Philip Knight was mostly the genuine/laissez-fair style of leadership. Many of the employees had matured by his side through the years, he had given his managers the freedom to make their own decisions and this had been proved efficient for Nike. The structure of the Organization The organizational structure is the formal system of task and reporting relationships that controls, coordinates and motivates employees so that they can cooperate to achieve the organizations goals. Structure enables the organization to apply the process of management and creates a hierarchy of command which makes it clear for employees to identify their roles and tasks they are responsible for within each department. In small organizations there is less complexity than in larger ones, therefore the need for a structure increases with the size of the organization. Drucker argues that good organizational structures do not always lead to good performance but a bad organizational structure makes good performance an impossibility, regardless of how good the employees are. The managers obligation is to create an organizational structure and culture that motivates employees to work hard and develop themselves and allows groups to cooperate effectively. Large organizations are increasingly marginalizing the role of their founders. The founders of both Yahoo Dell have been replaced by professional managers at the shareholders demand. An organization can be split into several divisions such as production, marketing, finance, RD etc. According to Wall (2004) there are five organizational structures, these include: international division structure, international geographic/regional structure, international product structure, international functional structure, matrix or mixed structure. Philip Knight used the Matrix structure. This brings together the functional, geographical and product structures and combines them in an attempt to meet the needs of a specific activity or project. Once that activity or project is completed, the team is often disbanded and return to their original position within the divisional or other structures of the organization. Employees report to different bosses in different departments to accomplish the different tasks. Change Management Management of change theories have been conceptualized to answer how successful change can happen within an organization. It refers to changes in the work environment that necessitates the workforce to make certain adaptations to way they are used to working. The ability of an organization to adapt to change is crucial for successful organizations such as Nike, if not properly implemented the company could face huge difficulties. In order to implement change effectively, barriers such as resistance to change must be successfully removed. The need for organizations to adapt has become vital to their survival, however individuals or groups in different departments have different opinions of how tasks should be carried out therefore a common vision must be shared by all in order for the change to be successful, this can be very time consuming. Organisational Change Management issues are often under-estimated or ignored entirely. In fact, people issues collectively account for the majority of project failures. This survey by KPMG looked at disastrous projects. One of the questions asked for the prime cause of the failure of change implementation. Although the result did not state people as the cause, it is interesting to note that many of the causes were to do with the behaviour and skills of the participants. Arguably all but the technical issues were related to the capabilities, attitudes and behaviour of people. Lewins Three Step Model Lewin (1951) introduced the three step model for successful change management. The first step in the process is called unfreezing the situation. Unfreezing Unfreezing is necessary to overcome individual resistance and group conformity. This can be achieved in three ways. Firstly by increasing the driving forces that direct behaviour away from the situation. Secondly, by decreasing the restraining forces that negatively affect the change. Lastly by finding a combination of the first two methods. These steps can include activities such as motivating the employees by preparing them for the change, encouraging and reassuring them of the need for change and make the employees contribute to the change process by helping identify problems and brainstorming solutions. Movement The second step of Lewins model for change is movement. This transformational process is made up of convincing the employees to agree that the current situation is not beneficial to them and encourage them to look at the problem from another perspective. The employees should know what the change is actually for, most resist because they are not aware why the change is taking place or needed. Refreezing The third step is refreezing, this must take place after the change has been implemented in order for it to be sustainable, otherwise employees can revert back to their old behaviours. This step stabilizes both the driving and the restraining forces. This can be accomplished through the introduction of procedures for the employees. This would also help new employees will find it easier to fit in with the organization. Lippitts Phases of Change Theory Lippitt, Watson and Westley (1958) extended Lewins three step model to include seven steps. This focused more on the role and responsibility of the change agent than on the evolution of the change itself. Lippitts seven steps Diagnosis of the problem Assessing the motivation and capacity for change Assessing the resources and motivation of the change agent. This includes the change agents commitment to change, power and stamina. Choosing progressive change objects. Action plans and developed and strategies established. The roles of the change agents should be chosen and clearly understood by all employees so that the outcomes and expectations are clear. Maintaining the change. Communication, feedback and group coordination are necessary elements. Gradually terminate from the helping relationship. The change agent should gradually withdraw from their role over time. This will happen when the change becomes part of the organizational culture (Lippitt, Watson and Westley 1958-1959). Lewins model is rational and goal oriented. It is however limited because it does not take into account personal factors such as human feelings that can affect the change process. Lippitts Phases of Change is an extension of Lewins Three-Step Theory. The focus is on the change agent rather than the change itself. Lewin analyses the forces that impacts change. Activities Contributing to Effective Change Management. Cummings and Worley (2008) have identified the following activities contributing to effective change management. Motivating change is the phase in the successful implementation of change. Motivation is vital because changing from the norm is regarded as a daunting experience. Employees feel their future in the organization is uncertain. They must feel that the change is necessary, this way they will understand they are part of the change process and help this occur. Creating a vision is the second phase. This is done by the leader and provides a common goal for all employees, allowing them to understand what the change is for and how it will benefit the entire organization. Develop political support. Organizations are made up of powerful individuals and groups that can either block or promote change. Individuals within the organization have different interests, opinions and concerns about how the change may affect their positions and levels of authority within their groups. Leaders and change agents need to gain their support to implement changes. The fourth phase is managing the transition, this is moving from the current state to the future state. This is not an instant process, it needs the organization to discover how to proceed with the implementation of change in to reach the goal. This is done through the planning of special management structures for operating the organization during the transition. Sustaining the momentum is the final stage. When the changes are implemented there must be a continued focus in maintaining them. This phase is the equivalent of Lewins refreezing. The employees might return to their previous behaviours if the changes are not sustained. Resistance to Change Resistance to change is what individuals or groups do when they perceive that a change that might occur is a threat. The risk of change is seen as greater than the risk of standing still. Employees resist change because they have to learn something new. In many case there is not a disagreement with the benefits of the new process, but rather a fear of the unknown future and about their ability to adapt to it. People are reluctant to leave the familiar behind. We are all suspicious about the unfamiliar, we are naturally concerned about how we will get from the old to the new, especially if it involves learning something new and risking failure. Resistance to change is defined as the fear that one will not be able to develop new skills and behaviours that are required in the new working environment. According to Kotter Schlesinger (1979), if an employee has a low tolerance for change, the increased uncertainty that arises as a result of having to perform their job differently would likely cause a resistance to the new way of doing things. An employee may understand that a change is needed, but may be emotionally unable to make the transition and resist for reasons they may not consciously understand. Resistance can be positive in certain situations. Managers see resistance as negative and the employees who resist are regarded as disobedient and obstacles the organization must overcome in order to implement the changes. However, employee resistance can play a positive role in organizational change. Constructive criticism and debate can produce better understanding as well as additional options and solutions. de Jager (2001) claims, the idea that anyone who questions the need for change has an attitude problem is simply wrong, not only because it discounts past achievements, but also because it makes us vulnerable to indiscriminate and ill-advised change. Overcoming Resistance to Change Kotter and Schlesinger (1979) set out six approaches to deal with resistance to change. Education and Communication are essential. One of the best ways to overcome resistance to change is to educate people about the change effort beforehand. Up-front, honest communication and education helps employees see the logic in the change effort, this reduces unfounded and incorrect assumptions and rumours concerning the effects of change in the organization. Participation and Involvement of employees. Where the initiators do not have all the information they need to design the change and where others have considerable power to resist. When employees are involved in the change effort they are more likely to approve change than resist it. Facilitation and Support is important as employees may have adjustment problems, by the managers being supportive at difficult times they can avoid potential resistance. Managerial support helps employees deal with fear and anxiety during a transition period. Special training or counselling can help ensure the staff do not perceive the change as detrimental. Negotiation and Agreements help managers combat resistance through incentives to employees not to resist change. This can be done by allowing change resistors to veto elements of change that are threatening, or change resistors can be offered incentives to leave the company through early buyouts or retirements in order to avoid having to experience the change effort. This approach is appropriate if all else fails and those resisting change are in a position of power. Manipulation and Co-option can be used when other strategies do not work or are too expensive. Kotter and Schlesinger $date$page number- suggest that: an effective manipulation technique is to co-opt with resisters. Co-option involves the patronizing gesture in bringing a person into a change management planning group for appearances rather than their actual contribution. This often involves selecting leaders of the resisters to participate in the change effort. These leaders can be given a symbolic role in decision making without threatening the change effort. Still, if these leaders feel they are being tricked they are likely to push resistance even further than if they were never included in the change effort leadership. Lastly Jotter and Schlesinger argue Explicit and Implicit Coercion can be used. Where circumstances arise that speed is absolutely essential and to be used only as last resort. Managers can explicitly or implicitly force employees into accepting change by making clear that resisting change can lead to losing jobs, firing, transferring or not promoting employees. Conclusion In todays fast paced world the ability to change and innovate is key to survival, the strategic recommendations have been made after thoroughly analysing Nike together with different approaches and strategies from several reputable academics. Change is unavoidable and it is human to resist unknown, however this research shows that with the right preparation and strategic systems in place it is possible to overcome and successfully implement changes which will lead to the organization developing in line with its vision and mission. The recommendations below will support the conclusions drawn from the above analysis and research. Recommendations: On the basis of the above analysis I recommend Perez proceeds with the transformational strategy, while monitoring and revising it periodically. The change must start at the top. Philip Knight had his methods of running the business which have proved successful as received the backing of the employees. Though Perez is experienced he has a very different way of functioning, he cannot expect the employees to follow his lead from day one, he must also adapt to fit into the organization and gain the acceptance of the employees. Perez should familiarize himself with the organization; he must understand the current culture in order to devise a plan to change this. If he tries to bring about change too quickly this will most probably fail as Nike is an organization with a well founded pop culture which developed over decades under Knight. An operations team should be formed and meetings organized in which the requirements should be set-out to enable the employees to be involved, this increasing motivation and provide all stake holders with a sense of ownership of the transformational process. A feedback system needs to be created to help the employees feel more comfortable and know their views are taken into consideration. The transformation process must be transparent with the employees understanding and being involved in the transformation strategy. Adapting the culture successfully will be difficult as many of the employees have spent most of their careers working within Nike, it has become part of who they are, but getting all the employees on board will lessen the resistance to change. The feedback must be monitored, staff confidence levels should be monitored. When they show the first signs of losing faith their problems must rapidly be addressed. Training employees is essential; to encourage motivation, increase self awareness and productivity surrounding their new roles and responsibilities. This will also help sustain the transformation. Perez must agree with Knight exactly what his role in the organization is. This will avoid any problems in the future running of the organization. The responsibilities of both, and the levels of authority must be clear and not overlapping. Founders are often difficult to replace, they see the organization as something they can intervene in whenever they want. This however has proven to be bad for business and has caused some catastrophic events. This has been done to many founders of huge organizations such as Michael Dell within the Dell organization. The founders of Yahoo, Jerry Yang and David Filo are no longer directly involved in the management of the organization. Jerry Yany the ex-CEO has now been given the title of Chief Yahoo and sits on the board. They were replaced by professional managers that the investors saw as more appropriate for the evolution of their organization. Removing Knight from the organization completely may be a difficult task however a clear agreement und erstood by both parties must be reached in order for Perez to be able to successfully take lead of Nike. References Linda Holbeche, CIPD, Director of research and policy http://www.cipd.co.uk/NR/rdonlyres/35F49ABC-0436-40D3-B02B-5B6838CCEEF2/0/Impact_28_org_develop_qanda.pdf [Accessed 08/09]. Wall, S. 2004. International Business. p283. Lipptitt, R, Watson, J and Westley. 1958. The Dynamics of Planned Change. Kotter, J. P., Schlesinger, L.A. 1979. Choosing strategies for change. Harvard Business Review de Jager, P. 2001. Resistance to change: a new view of an old problem. The Futurist, Bloisi, W., 2003. Management and organisational Behaviour. McGraw-Hill. Cummings. G, Worley.G,. 1996. Organisation development change. 6th edition, south western college publishing, Cincinnati. Mcshane Von Glinov., 2003. Organisational behaviour. McGraw-Hill Morgan, G., 1997. Images of organisation. Sage. Mullins, L.J., 2007. Management and organisational behaviour. 8th ed. Prentice hall/ Financial times. Rollinson, D. Broadfield, A., 2002. Organisational behaviour and analysis. 2nd ed. Financial times/Prentice hall. Wilson Rosenfield., (1999. Managing organisations. McGraw-Hill. Mullins, L. J., (2007. Management and Organisational Behaviour. 8th ed. Harlow: Financial Times Prentice Hall. Martin, J., 2005. Organisational Behaviour and Management. 3rd ed. London: Thomson. Cummings, T. G. Worley, C.G., 2005. Organization Development and Change. 8th ed. London: Thomson. Schein, E.H., 2004. Organizational culture and Leadership. 3rd ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Essays on the Diary of Anne Frank †The Real Heros :: Diary of Anne Frank Essays

The Diary of Anne Frank – The Real Heros The Diary of Anne Frank could not have been written without the selfless help of Mr. Kraler and Miep, the Dutch office-workers. In extremely hard times, they provided the necessary help for the survival of the eight people hiding out in the attic of a factory. Mr. Kraler often visited the two families in hiding, and made sure that no one found out about them, while Miep Brought them food, books and other things that they requested. They were real world heroes because few people would go through so much even for their friends. Mr. Kraler was an old man who felt that no people should suffer like the Jews. He took it upon himself and Miep to give the two families in hiding everything they needed for survival. He made sure that none of the workers found out about the secret annex. Right in the beginning of the story, Mr. Kraler installed a new dead bolt in the secret door for their safety. Mr. Kraler and Miep have been putting food stores on shelves and making sure there was enough drugs, soap and linen in store. Mr. Kraler is modest, when Mrs. Frank says the they wouldn't even be alive without Mr. Kraler's help, Mr. Kraler says "Please. Please. You make us seem very heroic. It isn't that at all. We simply don't like the Nazis." Mr. Kraler did everything within his abilities to provide the Franks and the Van Daans with the best hiding place in Amsterdam. Miep was a young woman who was engaged and also had to work everyday and yet she always found the time to visit the families, to bring them food, books, news and whatever else they might have needed or wanted. Miep was very generous but also modest. On new year's eve she baked them a cake, even though sugar was sold on rations. Mr. Frank offered her a piece of the cake but she said "None for me, thank you." because she knew that they hadn't had cake in a very long time, when Mr. Frank insisted, she said "I couldn't.". Miep went to a party, she made sure to remember everything to tell them the

Colombia Essay Essay

Colombia is a country in South America in the northwestern part of the continent. Colombia has a lot of natural resources, including beautiful beaches, dramatic mountains, and lush rain forests, but it is known for its political unrest and the violent influence of powerful drug cartels. Despite a long history of democratic government, Colombia has one of the most rigidly stratified class systems in Latin America. Colombia is the only country in South America with coasts on both the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Its neighbors on the east are Venezuela and Brazil; on the south, Ecuador and Peru; and to the northwest, Panama. The capital and largest city is Bogota. Colombian society is divided between the upper and lower classes, with a large and growing gap between them. A substantial middle class developed during the 20th century, a product in part of fairly widespread land ownership associated with the country’s coffee economy. Many of the attitudes that led to Colombia’s sharp class divisions originated in 16th-century Spain and became ingrained in Colombian society during the colonial period. Family lineage, inherited wealth, and racial background continue to be powerful determinants of status. Economic progress during the last 100 years has been substantial, but political, social, and economic power continues to be concentrated in the hands of the small upper class. Since the mid-20th century, Colombia has been torn by violence. Struggles between left-wing guerrillas, right-wing paramilitary groups, and the Colombian armed forces have convulsed much of the countryside. Colombia has also been plagued by an illegal drug trade that flourished in the country as a consequence of the growing demand for narcotics, particularly cocaine, in the United States and other rich, industrialized countries. The Colombian government has attempted to limit drug production and negotiate a peaceful settlement with the rebel forces. At the beginning of the 21st century, however, Colombia still experienced upheaval, and violence had become a daily experience for many Colombians. The total land area of Colombia is 440,831 sq mi. Colombia lies almost entirely in what is known as the Torrid Zone, the area of the earth’s surface between the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. The climate, however, varies with elevation. The low regions along the coast and the deep Pata and Magdalena river valleys are extremely hot, with average annual temperatures of 24 deg; to 27 deg C (75 deg; to 81 deg F). From about 500 to 2,300 m (about 1,500 to 7,500 ft) the  climate is subtropical, and from about 2,300 to 3,000 m (about 7,500 to 10,000 ft) it is temperate. Above about 3,000 m (about 10,000 ft) is the cold-climate zone, where temperatures range from -18 deg to 13 deg C (0 deg to 55 deg F). About half of Colombia’s land is forested. To the north and west of the Andes, tropical forests line the major riv ers and fringe the coastal areas. East of the Andes, the forests become denser as they approach the Orinoco and Amazon rivers. Pastureland occupies about 40 percent of the country and is mostly located in the basins between the Andean highlands. Cropland accounts for a mere 4.1 percent of the land, with no more than 1.7 percent supporting permanent crops. Most of the arable land is found in patches on the Andean mountainsides. The mineral resources of the country are varied and extensive. Colombia ranks as the world’s major source of emeralds, most of which are mined in the western department of Boyac. Other significant reserves include petroleum and natural gas, located mostly in the northeast. Most coal deposits are located on the Guajira peninsula on the country’s northeast coast. Gold and silver are found dispersed in veins throughout the central highlands. Iron ore, salt, platinum, and uranium are other important natural resources of Colombia. Colombia contains several fertile low-lying valleys, but only 4.1 percent of the country’s land area, chiefly at higher elevations, is cultivated. The country’s agricultural regions suffer from soil exhaustion and erosion. These problems stem largely from slash-and-burn farming methods, in which forestland is cleared by cutting down and burning the existing plants. Colombia is divided into 32 departments and one capital district. Colombia’s capital and largest city is Bogota, an industrial center with a population (2000 estimate) of 6,422,198. Located on a mountain plateau in the Cordillera Oriental, it is the heart of cultural and political life in Colombia. Cali (2,128,920) lies in the Cauca Valley. The city began as a center for coffee production, but it later developed as the commercial heart of the entire southern region. Medellà ­n (1,885,001), situated in a highland valley of the Cordillera Central, ranks as the most important economic area. Originally settled by migrants from Cartagena, Medellà ­n grew into a gold-mining town, a general commercial settlement, and finally an important manufacturing center. Other important commercial cities include Barranquilla  (1,549,197), which boasts a seaport and a major international airport, and Cartagena (829,476), a seaport and oil pipeline terminal. The Colombian population has a dive rse racial makeup. About 58 percent of the people are mestizo (of mixed European and Native American ancestry), about 20 percent are of unmixed European ancestry, and about 14 percent are mulatto (of mixed black and European ancestry). Blacks account for 4 percent of the population, mixed black and Native Americans for 3 percent, and unmixed Native Americans for 1 percent. The main religion in Colombia is Roman Catholicism; about 96 percent of the people are Roman Catholics. Although it is not the official state religion, Roman Catholicism is taught in all public schools. Small Protestant and Jewish minorities exist. Coffee is still Colombia’s principal crop, although Colombia was recently surpassed by Vietnam as the second largest coffee producer in the world after Brazil. Colombia remains the world’s leading producer of mild coffee, but in the mid-1990s petroleum became the country’s largest source of foreign income. In the mid-1970s coffee accounted for 80 percent of Colombia’s export earnings; by the early 2000s coffee brought in less than 10 percent of export earnings. High production costs and low international prices combined to reduce the earnings of Colombian coffee growers. Coffee is cultivated chiefly on mountain slopes from about 900 to 1,800 m (about 3,000 to 6,000 ft) above sea level, principally in the departments of Caldas, Antioquia, Cundinamarca, Norte de Santander, Tolima, and Santander. More than 150,000 mainly small coffee plantations extend over approximately 1 million hectares (approximately 2.5 million acres). Coffee output totaled 702,000 metric tons in 2003, with most of the exported coffee going to the United States. While coffee is Colombia’s leading agricultural product, the country’s diverse climate and topography permit cultivation of a wide variety of other crops. Annual production of principal cash crops in addition to coffee includes cacao bean s (47,000 metric tons), sugarcane (36.6 million), tobacco (29,000), cotton (100,000), bananas, and cut flowers. Chief food crops are rice (2.5 million), cassava (1.8 million), potatoes (2.9 million), and plantains. Plants producing pita, sisal, and hemp fibers, used in the manufacture of cordage and coarse sacking material, are also cultivated. The livestock included cattle, hogs, sheep, and horses. The production of drug-related crops took on significant proportions starting in the 1970s  with the cultivation of marijuana. Although Colombia has become notorious for its cocaine supply, the processing of coca leaves was more significant than actual coca plant cultivation in the country until the mid-1990s. As the supply of coca, primarily from Peru and Bolivia, was disrupted, coca growing in Colombia increased significantly. Opium poppies, used to make heroin, also became a significant source of revenue despite government efforts to stop their cultivation. It was estimated that from 1980 to 1995 the value of illegal drug exports amounted to almost half the value of Colombia’s legal exp orts. Colombia’s government has undergone several changes since the mid-20th century. One of the most significant was the adoption of a new constitution in 1991. The new constitution replaced the 1886 constitution and provided for a more decentralized, pluralistic, and democratic government. Colombian governments also had to contend with major changes in the national economy. After 1980 Colombia began exporting large amounts of illegal drugs, primarily cocaine. The estimated value of illegal drug exports amounted to almost half the value of Colombia’s legal exports from 1980 to 1995. Earnings from the drug trade helped Colombia avoid the debt crisis that afflicted much of Latin America during the 1980s. But by cheapening the dollar and thereby overvaluing the Colombian peso, the drug trade also undermined the competitiveness of Colombia’s legal exports by making them more expensive than similar exports from other countries.

Classic British Essays Of Travel by Francis Bacon

A statesman, scientist, philosopher, and author, Francis Bacon is generally regarded as the first major English essayist. The first edition of his Essayes appeared in 1597, not long after the publication of Montaignes influential Essais.  Editor John Gross has characterized Bacons essays  as masterpieces of rhetoric; their glowing commonplaces have never been surpassed. By 1625, when this version of Of Travel appeared in the third edition of Essayes  or Counsels, Civill and Morall, European travel was already part of the education of many young aristocrats. (See the essay by Owen Felltham also titled Of Travel.) Consider the value of Bacons advice to the present-day traveler:   keep a diary, rely on a guidebook, learn the language, and avoid the company of fellow countrymen. Also notice how Bacon relies on list structures and parallelism to organize a number of his recommendations and examples. Of Travel by Francis Bacon Travel, in the younger sort, is a part of education; in the elder a part of experience. He that travelleth into a country, before he hath some entrance into the language, goeth to school, and not to travel. That young men travel under some tutor or grave servant, I allow well; so that he be such a one that hath the language, and hath been in the country before; whereby he may be able to tell them what things are worthy to be seen in the country where they go, what acquaintances they are to seek, what exercises or discipline the place yieldeth; for else young men shall go hooded, and look abroad little. It is a strange thing, that in sea-voyages, where there is nothing to be seen but sky and sea, men should make diaries; but in land travel, wherein so much is to be observed, for the most part they omit it; as if chance were fitter to be registered than observation: let diaries, therefore, be brought in use. The things to be seen and observed are, the courts of princes, especially when they give audience to ambassadors; the courts of justice, while they sit and hear causes; and so of consistories ecclesiastic [church councils]; the churches and monasteries, with the monuments which are therein extant; the walls and fortifications of cities and towns; and so the havens and harbours, antiquities and ruins, libraries, colleges, disputations, and lectures, where any are; shipping and navies; houses and gardens of state and pleasure, near great cities; armories, arsenals, magazines, exchanges, burses, warehouses, exercises of horsemanship, fencing, training of soldiers, and the like: comedies, such whereunto the better sort of persons do resort; treasuries of jewels and robes; cabinets and rarities; and, to conclude, whatsoever is memorable in the places where they go; after all which the tutors or servants ought to make diligent inquiry. As for triumphs, masks, feasts, weddings, funerals, capital executions, and such shows, men need not to be put in mind of them: yet are they not to be neglected. Overseas travel during Francis Bacons time wasnt something just anyone could do, and without air travel, it wasnt something one did on a lark for a quick vacation, either. It took a lot longer to get somewhere, so once there, you were going to stay a while. In this section he advises travelers to have a tutor in the language or a servant whos been to the place before as a guide. Today this advice still can apply, though you dont have to hire someone to go with you. Maybe you know someone whos been to the country or city before and can give you dos and donts. You can have a travel agent put together an itinerary for you. When you get there, you can hire a local guide or find tours at the local tourism office. Bacons point is to draw on others knowledge of the place before you go, so you dont end up walking around blindfolded (hooded) and not able to fully understand the place while you experience it. Learning any of the local language that you can before you depart only helps you in the daily details of getting from point A to point B and finding the absolute essentials: food and drink, a place to sleep, and lavatory facilities, though Bacon was too genteel to point these items out specifically.   He advises people to keep a journal of what they see and experience, which is good advice as well. Trips last only so long, and memories of the finer details can fade. If you write them down, though, youll be able to re-experience the trip later, through your first-impression eyes. And dont just write down a few things on the way over there and then drop it. Keep it up throughout your trip where youll be seeing new things all the time. See historical buildings where courts of princes or courts of justice took place. See churches, monasteries, monuments, town walls and fortifications, harbors and shipyards, ruins, and colleges and libraries. You might be able to see fencing demonstrations or horse shows, though nowadays youre likely not to run into many capital executions. You can take in plays and attend talks, see artifacts, and do whatever other activities of interest your guide or friend recommended are musts for the place.  Ã‚   If you will have a young man to put his travel into a little room, and in short time to gather much, this you must do: first, as was said, he must have some entrance into the language before he goeth; then he must have such a servant, or tutor, as knoweth the country, as was likewise said: let him carry with him also some card, or book, describing the country where he travelleth, which will be a good key to his inquiry; let him keep also a diary; let him not stay long in one city or town, more or less as the place deserveth, but not long: nay, when he stayeth in one city or town, let him change his lodging from one end and part of the town to another, which is a great adamant of acquaintance; let him sequester himself from the company of his countrymen, and diet in such places where there is good company of the nation where he travelleth: let him, upon his removes from one place to another, procure recommendation to some person of quality residing in the place whither he removeth; th at he may use his favour in those things he desireth to see or know; thus he may abridge his travel with much profit. Besides language tutoring and advice from a friend, Bacon advises that you want a good guidebook to help you get around, which is still perfectly good advice today. He also advises to not spend too long in any one place—not even in the same part of town. Try out different sections. And dont isolate yourself with your traveling group or people from your home country. Interact with the locals. Get advice from residents of the place youre visiting on what to see and do and where to eat. Your travel will be richer for it if follow locals recommendations because youll find places that you might not otherwise have found. Some advice never goes out of style. As for the acquaintance which is to be sought in travel, that which is most of all profitable, is acquaintance with the secretaries and employed men of ambassadors; for so in travelling in one country he shall suck the experience of many: let him also see and visit eminent persons in all kinds, which are of great name abroad, that he may be able to tell how the life agreeth with the fame; for quarrels, they are with care and discretion to be avoided: they are commonly for mistresses, healths, place, and words; and let a man beware how he keepeth company with choleric and quarrelsome persons; for they will engage him into their own quarrels. When a traveller returneth home, let him not leave the countries where he hath travelled altogether behind him; but maintain a correspondence by letters with those of his acquaintance which are of most worth; and let his travel appear rather in his discourse than in his apparel or gesture; and in his discourse, let him be rather advised in his ans wers, than forward to tell stories: and let it appear that he doth not change his country manners for those of foreign parts; but only prick in some flowers of that he hath learned abroad into the customs of his own country. For a 17th century aristocrat, it was probably easier to make acquaintance with ambassadors employees, but they didnt have travel agents or the internet, either, to find out about destinations. Its definitely good advice to be on good behavior while traveling, though.  Ã‚   Upon your return, as Bacon points out, your friends arent going to want to hear you go on and on ad nauseam about your trip. Neither should you discard your previous way of life and completely adopt the customs of the place youve just returned from. But definitely do learn from your experience and incorporate knowledge and practices that youve picked up to make your life better—at home.